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Oil Sands Environmental Management Bibliography

The Cumulative Environmental Management Association (CEMA)partnered with the Oil Sands Research and Information Network (OSRIN) to create the new Oil Sands Environmental Management Bibliography, which includes documents relevant to the environmental management of oil sands development in Alberta. The majority of the documents focus on the mineable oil sands in the Athabasca deposit, though some documents relate to in-situ developments. This bibliography was last updated in November 2014.

Market control on the development of the Athabasca oil sands

Authors Hodgson, G. W.
Year of Publication: 1965

Abstract:
A heavy black crude oil can be produced from the Athabasca oil sands of Alberta, Can. Evaluating this oil delivered by pipeline to the Ontario market for solid fuels where it would bring about 35 cents per million Btu, and pricing it back to the site of production in Alberta more than 2,000 miles away, indicates an on-site value of about $1.40 per bbl. An evaluation based upon the California market shows a similar result. Evaluating the raw crude as a thermal energy source fuel in the local market results in a value of about $1.00 per bbl for the oil. When one assumes the usual financial structure for fixed costs, interest, depreciation, operating costs, and profit, the $1.00 to $1.40 per bbl on-site value of the oil indicates limits on the production investment of about $45 to $63 million for a plant producing 30,000 bpd of the raw crude oil. (23 refs.)

Marsh reclamation in the oil sands of Alberta: Providing benchmarks and models of vegetation development

Authors Roy, M. C. -
Year of Publication: 2013

Abstract:
A key objective of the Alberta oil sands industry is to reclaim the post-mined landscape to “equivalent land capability” (Harris 2007). Vitt and Bhatti (2012) proposed a restoration framework for boreal disturbances. They suggested that to increase chances of achieving ecosystem equivalency and sustainability, created sites must have 1) species composition similar to natural reference sites, 2) species performance based on natural benchmarks, and 3) ecological processes similar to reference sites. To provide reclamation benchmarks to which created marshes of the Fort McMurray region can be compared and reclamation practices adjusted, my work follows the rationale developed by Vitt and Bhatti (2012). In Chapter One, I provided an introduction to the major paradigms of community ecology. In Chapter Two, I identified, described and compared environmental and plant assemblage patterns present in different types of created and natural marshes. In Chapter Three, I examined the degree to which the addition of peat-mineral mix (PM) to different types of oil sands process materials (OSPM) affects C. aquatilis performance. I also tested the effects of oil sands process water (OSPW) on C. aquatilis performance. In Chapter Four, I defined and compared natural and created marsh zone area variation over time and identified abiotic factors that influence the patterns observed. My results revealed that created and natural marshes were characterised by distinct environmental conditions and that the vegetation composition of some created sites was dissimilar to natural reference sites. The addition of PM to OSPM significantly increases C. aquatilis survival, below and aboveground biomass. The use of OSPW significantly reduced C. aquatilis belowground biomass and affected its physiological performance. Amending created marshes with PM may enhance plant performance but its effect at the community level remains to be tested. Unlike natural marshes the total areas of created marshes were dominated by stable submersed aquatic vegetation zone (SAVZ) in all years. Mean maximum temperature and annual total snow were identified as the simplest ways to predict SAVZ area within natural marshes for a given year. The ratio of marsh area to volume described SAVZ area variation and provided prescriptive guidance for construction of reclaimed marshes.

Mass spectral characterisation of a polar esterified fraction of an organic extract of an oil sands process water

Year of Publication: 2014

Abstract:
Characterising complex mixtures of organic compounds in polar fractions of heavy petroleum is challenging, but is important for pollution studies and for exploration and production geochemistry. Oil sands process-affected water (OSPW) stored in large tailings ponds by Canadian oil sands industries contains such mixtures.

Mass spectrometric and toxicological assays of Athabasca oil sands naphthenic acids

Year of Publication: 2006

Abstract:
This work concerns the analysis of model naphthenic acids and authentic naphthenic acids from the tailings ponds of the Athabasca tar sands. A first objective was to compare atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry (APCI-MS) with the previously studied electrospray mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) in this analysis. APCI-MS had a wider range of quantitation than ESI-MS, but its detection limit was poorer and model compounds showed greater variation in calibration sensitivity. A second objective was fractionation of naphthenic acids from tailings pond water and analysis by the Microtox toxicity assay. Fractionation on the basis of solubility gave fractions that did not differ significantly either in their congener distribution by ESI-MS or in their response to the Microtox assay. When partial separation was achieved by anion exchange chromatography, fractions with a higher proportion of multi-ring structures exhibited lower toxic potency. This finding is consistent with field observations that indicate that the toxic potency of tailings ponds water declines as the samples age-multi-ring structures are more highly branched and therefore more resistant to microbial degradation.

Mass spectrometric characterization of naphthenic acids in environmental samples: A review

Year of Publication: 2009

Abstract:
The rapid expansion of the oil sands industry has seen a concomitant expansion of the production of associated waste containing toxic naphthenic acids (NAs). Bioremediation of such waste is thus an important goal, but the mechanisms of biodegradation are still poorly understood, despite recent advances. Many oil sands NAs are resistant to biodegradation, and alkyl side chain branching has been invoked as an explanation. To investigate this hypothesis we examined the biotransformation by a sedimentary bacterial community of novel, synthetic, surrogate NAs (butylcyclohexylbutanoic acids (BCHBAs)) with variously branched butyl side chains (n- through t-) and unbranched alkanoate groups, plus one (4-(4′-isobutylcyclohexyl)pentanoic acid (iso-BCHPA)), with both branched butyl and branched alkanoate chains. Sediment microbial populations were inoculated into media containing the individual surrogate NAs, and gas chromatography−mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to determine the extent of biotransformation. Biotransformation decreased as NA side chain branching increased. For example, over 97% of the n-BCHBA with the nonbranched alkyl side chain was transformed in 30 days compared to the tert-BCHBA with the most highly branched side chain where only 2.5% was transformed. Both the iso-BCHBA and sec-BCHBA had intermediate transformation rates with about 77% and 47% transformed respectively after 30 days. The metabolites were identified as butylcyclohexylethanoic acids in each case, indicating beta-oxidation of the alkanoate substituents. The iso-BCHPA with both chains branched was resistant to degradation. The results are thus consistent with earlier hypotheses for the resistance of oil sands NAs. Identification of bacteria capable of oxidizing such branched alkyl chains-or of attacking the cyclic rings of NAs, may be important if bioremediation of oil sands NAs is to be achieved.

Mature fine tailings (MFTs): A study of compressive strength and rheological properties of Athabasca oil sands petroleum mining waste applied in concrete mixtures

Authors Leav, J. S.
Year of Publication: 2013

Abstract:
This study investigates the compressive properties of concrete incorporating Mature Fine Tailings (MFTs) waste stream from a tar sands mining operation. The objectives of this study are to investigate material properties of the MFT material itself, as well as establish general feasibility of the utilization of MFT material in concrete mixtures through empirical data and visual observations. Investigations undertaken in this study consist of moisture content, materials finer than No. 200 sieve, Atterburg Limits as well as visual observations performed on MFT material as obtained. Control concrete mixtures as well as MFT replacement mixture designs (% by wt. of water) were guided by properties of the MFT material that were experimentally established. The experimental design consists of compression testing of 4"--Diameter concrete cylinders of a control mixture, 30% MFT, 50% MFT and 70% MFT replacement mixtures with air-entrainer additive, as well as a control mixture and 30% MFT replacement mixture with no air-entrainer. A total of 6 mixtures (2 control mixtures, 4 replacement mixtures) moist-cured in lime water after 24 hours initial curing were tested for ultimate compressive strength at 7 days and 28 days in accordance to ASTM C39. The test results of fresh concrete material show that the addition of air-entrainer to the control mixture increases slump from 4" to 5.5". However, the use of MFT material in concrete mixtures significantly decreases slump as compared to controls. All MFT replacement mixtures (30%, 50%, and 70%) with air-entrainer present slumps of 1". 30% MFT with no air-entrainer presents a slump of 1.5". It was found that 7-day ultimate compressive stress was not a good predictor of 28-day ultimate compressive stress. 28-day results indicate that the use of MFT material in concrete with air-entrainer decreases ultimate compressive stress for 30%, 50% and 70% MFT replacement amounts by 14.2%, 17.3% and 25.1% respectively.

Mature fine tailings from oil sands processing harbour diverse methanogenic communities

Year of Publication: 2010

Abstract:
Processing oil sands to extract bitumen produces large volumes of a tailings slurry comprising water, silt, clays, unrecovered bitumen, and residual solvent used in the extraction process. Tailings are deposited into large settling basins, where the solids settle by gravity to become denser mature fine tailings (MFT). A substantial flux of methane, currently estimated at ~40 million L/day, is being emitted from the Mildred Lake Settling Basin. To better understand the biogenesis of this greenhouse gas, the methanogenic consortia in MFT samples from depth profiles in 2 tailings deposits (Mildred Lake Settling Basin and West In-Pit) were analyzed by constructing clone libraries of amplified archaeal and bacterial 16S rRNA genes. The archaeal sequences, whose closest matches were almost exclusively cultivated methanogens, were com- parable within and between basins and were predominantly (87% of clones) affiliated with acetoclastic Methanosaeta spp. In contrast, bacterial clone libraries were unexpectedly diverse, with the majority (~55%) of sequences related to Proteo- bacteria, including some presumptive nitrate-, iron-, or sulfate-reducing, hydrocarbon-degrading genera (e.g., Thauera, Rhodoferax, and Desulfatibacillum). Thus, MFT harbour a diverse community of prokaryotes presumptively responsible for producing methane from substrates indigenous to the MFT. These findings contribute to our understanding of biogenic methane production and densification of MFT in oil sands tailings deposits.

Maximization of technical training and involvement of area manpower in AOSERP

Authors
Year of Publication: 1976

Abstract:
In this report Dev-cor Technical Services presents a plan for employing indigenous people in AOSERP. The introductory section of the report details the assignment as given by the Human Environment Committee and briefly describes AOSERP and its project area in Northeastern Alberta. The second section forms the body of the report, providing a general conceptual model of employment and the occupational structure, a proposal for the training of indigenous people which would facilitate their employment in AOSERP, and a research procedure for evaluating the efficacy of the training-employment proposal. The third and final section touches on related points, such as the availability of training institutions and funding. The final recommendation is that AOSERP contract an outside agency to carry out the recruitment, training, and research procedures outlined in the report and that it utilize this process to meet its commitment to hire local people. It is, also, an excellent opportunity to research the use of training and employment as an intervention procedure for maximizing the benefits and minimizing the adverse effects of rapid resource development for an indigenous population.

Maximizing available soil moisture in reclamation caps on coarse grained soil

Authors Zettl, J., Barbour L., & Si B.
Year of Publication: 2009

Abstract:
This report highlights the main findings of the research and identifies the next steps for the Terrestrial Subgroup workplan and potential management implications for reclamation practices based on the recommendations present in the report.

Measurement of hydraulic conductivity in oil sand tailings slurries

Year of Publication: 1996

Abstract:
Fine tails, the resulting fine waste from oil sand processing, undergoes large-strain consolidation in tailings ponds. Its consolidation behavior must be analyzed using a large-strain consolidation theory, which requires the determination of the relationship between the void ratio and hydraulic conductivity. Conventional measurement techniques are not suitable for fine tails, and a special slurry consolidometer, with a clamping device to prevent seepage-induced consolidation, was designed to determine the hydraulic conductivity of the fine tails and of nonsegregating fine tails - sand slurries. The hydraulic conductivity of slurries is not constant but decreases with time to a steady-state value. Hydraulic conductivity is also influenced by the hydraulic gradient and bitumen content. It is shown that a low hydraulic gradient, less than 0.2, is necessary to counteract the effect of the bitumen and to represent tailings pond conditions. The hydraulic conductivity of fine tails sand mixes is controlled by the fines void ratio, hence, fines content. The hydraulic conductivity of chemically amended nonsegregating tailings can be lower than that of fine tails. However, acid-lime or acid - fly ash amended nonsegregating tailings have similar hydraulic conductivity values in terms of fines void ratio. The hydraulic conductivity of nonsegregating tailings appears to be governed by fines content and by the nature of the fines aggregation caused by the chemical additive.

Measurement of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in epiphytic lichens for receptor modeling in the Alberta oil sands region

Year of Publication: 2013

Abstract:
As mining and refinery operations in the Alberta Oil Sands Region (AOSR) have expanded, there has been increasing concern for the impacts of air pollution generated by those operations on both human and ecosystem health. The inaccessibility of much of the AOSR makes it difficult to establish conventional air quality monitoring stations to the extent needed to model long-range impacts of emissions from the AOSR operations. Epiphytic lichens are important markers of ecosystem health, are well-established bioaccumulators of trace metals, and are potentially useful biomonitors of air pollution. However, their ability to take up organic pollutants has not been extensively explored, and only recently have they been used for biomonitoring of pollution by PAHs. Here we describe the determination of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in lichens, collected from sites throughout the AOSR, for modeling emissions associated with mining and oil extraction operations. We also describe preliminary results of the determination of PAHs in PM 2.5 filters from dichotomous samplers stationed in the AOSR, in the context of the biological sample data. Lichens (Hypogymnia physodes) were collected on two separate occasions. During the summer of 2009, single samples were taken from 200 sites in the AOSR; a subset of 20 of these was selected for determination of PAHs. During the summer of 2011, triplicate samples (from separate trees within a site) were collected from 20 sites representing similar locations to the 2008 sites. Lichens were milled in a cryogenic impactor, then were extracted with cyclohexane. Extracts were purified on silica gel using automated solid phase extraction and analyzed by gas chromatography with mass selective detection. Method detection limits for individual PAHs were 2-4 ng/g. Total PAHs in the samples from both collection events ranged from 50 ng/g to 350 ng/g, and declined with increasing distance from the mining and refinery operations. The relative contribution of low ring number PAHs to total PAHs increased with increasing distance. Total PAHs correlated strongly (R2 > 0.80, p < 0.05) with crustal elements, suggesting similar transport mechanisms. Analytical data for PAHs on PM 2.5 filters, including relationships between concentrations, PAH profiles, and distance from the mines, will be presented. The lichen data are consistent with PAH transport close to the mines being more influenced by particulate matter transport mechanisms, whereas PAHs in samples collected from remote areas reflect more of the vapor phase transport mechanisms.

Measurement of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in epiphytic lichens for receptor modeling in the Athabasca oil sands region (AOSR): A pilot study

Year of Publication: 2013

Abstract:
The use of measurements of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in lichens was evaluated in a pilot study as a tool for receptor modeling of air pollution from mining and oil extraction activities in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region (AOSR). Lichen samples (Hypogymnia physodes) were collected at 20 locations within 150km of the mining and oil extraction center located near Fort McKay. Samples were cleaned, homogenized using a cryogenic impactor, and extracted with cyclohexane. Extracts were cleaned up using Florisil solid-phase extraction and analyzed by gas chromatography with mass selective detection (GC/MS). Total PAHs (20 compounds) ranged from 52 to 350μg/kg, comparable to values reported from other studies of PAHs in lichens. Analysis of air samples collected using polyurethane foam or dichotomous air sampler filters showed that PAHs were dominated by naphthalene and 3-ring congeners, whereas lichen samples from comparable locations yielded significant contributions from 4-, 5-, and 6-ring PAHs. The concentration of total PAHs in lichen samples and the relative contribution of higher ring number PAHs both decreased with increasing distance from the mining and oil extraction centers, consistent with less efficient vapor-phase transport of the less-volatile higher ring number PAHs. PAH congener profiles for samples varied depending on distance from the mines. Principal components analysis incorporating analytical data from a variety of matrices indicated multiple factors contribute to PAH content in a given sample. Measurements of metals in the 20 lichen samples showed significant correlations (r 2>0.8, p<0.05) between crustal element levels and total PAHs. Taken together, the results suggest that PAH concentrations and profiles in lichens depend on influences from multiple sources and transport mechanisms. A more fully validated approach is needed to develop an understanding of sampling and analytical variability and bias, and a review of recent research in this area indicates that this is a significant gap in many lichen-PAH biomonitoring studies.

Measurement of soil physical parameters to evaluate soil structure quality in reclaimed oil sands soils Alberta Canada

Authors Yarmuch, M.
Year of Publication: 2003

Abstract:
This study measured physical properties of undisturbed and reclaimed soils to infer structure quality in reclaimed soils. Study questions were: (1) Is there a difference in soil structure between undisturbed and reclaimed soils and (2) Does soil structure change between similar young and old reclaimed sites? Research sites were chosen at three oil sands mining operations near Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada. Soil structure was assessed using the soil physical parameters: (a) bulk density determined from cores, (b) field saturated hydraulic conductivity using the Guelph permeameter, and (c) pore size distribution using a combination of the water column method and pressure plate apparatus. Generally no soil structure limitations in reclaimed soils were found compared to undisturbed soils. Furthermore, soil structure quality did not change as reclaimed soils aged. Thus oil sands reclamation creates soils with structure equal to that of undisturbed soils of the area, which is relatively stable with time.

Measuring naphthenic acids concentrations in aqueous environmental samples by liquid chromatography

Year of Publication: 2004

Abstract:
Naphthenic acids are found in wastewaters from petroleum refineries and oil sands extraction plants. Currently, the concentrations of these toxic carboxylic acids are determined by extracting them into methylene chloride and measuring the absorption of the carboxyl group by Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. An improved HPLC method, that is simpler and faster than the FTIR method, was used to detect the 2-nitrophenylhydrazides of the naphthenic acids at concentrations as low as 5 mg l−1. Analyses of 58 oil sands water samples showed that the naphthenic acids concentrations determined by FTIR were on average 11% higher than those determined by HPLC.

Meeting the demands of rapid oil sands industry growth: Public-private partnerships can deliver municipal infrastructure requirements

Year of Publication: 2007

Abstract:
On November 14, 2006, the Alberta Energy and Utilities Board (EUB) approved the application submitted by Suncor Energy Inc. to proceed with two major projects in the Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo, Alberta, near Fort McMurray. The board made its favourable decision in spite of considerable opposition by stakeholders, who raised concerns regarding serious infrastructure shortages in Wood Buffalo and the impact that these shortages may have on further oil sands development.

Megaproject review in the megaprogram context: Examining Alberta bitumen development

Year of Publication: 2013

Abstract:
In recent decades northern Alberta has come to be one of the world's most important sources of new oil production. There are 175 billion barrels of bitumen under development, and government and developers are rapidly expanding their capacity to produce it, often through the construction of megaprojects. Both the federal and Alberta governments have review processes in place to scrutinize proposals for new projects. It is the aim of this thesis to examine how such processes should be conducted, to evaluate the federal and Alberta processes, and to identify means with which these processes might be improved. Megaprojects, and the 'megaprograms' that megaprojects may exist within as they do in the case of bitumen development, pose numerous challenges to project review. Therefore a robust project review process is necessary to ensure that only sound development proceeds and the public interest is protected. Twenty-two sets of 'good practices' are identified. The good practices are used as a measuring stick to evaluate the existing federal and Alberta review processes. The results of the evaluation are multi-facetted but can be summed up as concerning. Bitumen development is shaping Canadian society today, yet the federal and Alberta processes for reviewing proposals has serious shortcomings. To help inform the good practices, particularly with respect to sound methodology in impact assessment, a cost-benefit analysis of the Kearl bitumen mine is undertaken. The case study concludes that the project could be an overall net social cost to society, in large part because of the high costs of the project and its greenhouse gas damages. It is concluded that cost-benefit analysis is highly useful to project review and should be used in either its traditional form, or in a modified way, though always in respect of its limitations. Eighty three recommendations for the federal and Alberta governments are identified to help improve the process for the review of bitumen megaproject proposals. Many recommendations revolve around the need for the governments to fill in gaps with respect to cumulative effects management and planning of the bitumen megaprogram.

Mercury concentration and isotopic composition of epiphytic tree lichens in the Athabasca oil sands region

Year of Publication: 2013

Abstract:
Mercury (Hg) is a toxic heavy metal that is found associated with fossil fuel deposits and that can be released to the atmosphere during fossil fuel combustion and/or processing. Hg emitted to the atmosphere can be deposited to aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems where it can be methylated by bacteria. Methylmercury is strongly biomagnified in food webs and this leads to toxic levels in high trophic level fish, the consumption of which is a major human exposure pathway. Epiphytic tree lichens have been widely used to investigate the relationship between atmospheric point sources of Hg and regional Hg deposition patterns. An intensive study of Hg concentration and stable isotopic composition of the epiphytic tree lichen Hypogymnia physodes was carried out in the area within 150km of the Athabasca oil sands region (AOSR) industrial developments. Concentrations of Hg were comparable to background values measured in previous studies from remote areas and were far below the values observed near significant atmospheric industrial sources of Hg. Spatial patterns provide no evidence for a significant atmospheric point source of Hg from the oil sands developments, and Hg accumulation actually decreases in lichens within 25km of the northern AOSR development, presumably due to physiological responses of H. physodes to enhanced SO 2 deposition. Stable Hg isotope ratios show an increase in Δ 199Hg and Δ 201Hg within 25km of the AOSR, and we speculate that this is due to a change in the proportion of the various ligands to which Hg is bonded in the lichens, and a resulting change in the isotope fractionation during partial photochemical reduction and loss of Hg from lichen surfaces.

Mercury in the lower Athabasca River and its watershed

Authors Radmanovich, R.
Year of Publication: 2013

Abstract:
This study assessed the geographic distribution of mercury in water, and biota of the Athabasca River, and in snow and vegetation in its watershed. Mercury in the snowpack was significantly elevated within 46km of oil sands development relative to greater distances. Mercury was significantly higher in tributaries more disturbed by oil sands development relative to less disturbed watersheds. Mercury in vegetation was elevated near development, but was higher at moderate distances from development, likely due to differences in atmospheric speciation within upgrader plumes compared to speciation within the downwind atmosphere. Mercury concentrations were significantly higher in Walleye, Northern Pike, and Goldeye compared to Lake Whitefish. A large percentage (72-80%) of Northern Pike, Goldeye, and Walleye exceeded the Health Canada fish consumption guideline for frequent consumers. The spatial distribution of mercury within the Athabasca River and its watershed indicates oil sands development is a significant source of mercury within the region.

Mercury trends in colonial waterbird eggs downstream of the oil sands region of Alberta Canada

Year of Publication: 2013

Abstract:
Mercury levels were measured in colonial waterbird eggs collected from two sites in northern Alberta and one site in southern Alberta, Canada. Northern sites in the Peace-Athabasca Delta and Lake Athabasca were located in receiving waters of the Athabasca River which drains the oil sands industrial region north of Fort McMurray, Alberta. Temporal trends in egg mercury (Hg) levels were assessed as were egg stable nitrogen isotope values as an indicator of dietary change. In northern Alberta, California and Ring-billed Gulls exhibited statistically significant increases in egg Hg concentrations in 2012 compared to data from the earliest year of sampling. Hg levels in Caspian and Common Tern eggs showed a nonstatistically significant increase. In southern Alberta, Hg concentrations in California Gull eggs declined significantly through time. Bird dietary change was not responsible for any of these trends. Neither were egg Hg trends related to recent forest fires. Differences in egg Hg temporal trends between northern and southern Alberta combined with greater Hg levels in eggs from northern Alberta identified the likely importance of local Hg sources in regulating regional Hg trends. Hg concentrations in gull and Common Tern eggs were generally below generic thresholds associated with toxic effects in birds. However, in 2012, Hg levels in the majority of Caspian Tern eggs exceeded the lower toxicity threshold. Increasing Hg levels in eggs of multiple species nesting downstream of the oil sands region of northern Alberta warrant continued monitoring and research to further evaluate Hg trends and to conclusively identify sources.

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